A Semantic Look at Terrorism, with Mykonos as a Case Study

            Words are powerful. Particularly in the realm of politics, they are flung around haphazardly, often with no concern for literal meanings. "We can't let the Commies gain any more ground!" "It's the bureaucracy, man." "Barack Obama is a Socialist!" Phrases like these have long been used, but were one to ask those saying them to define terms like communist, bureaucracy, and socialist, many would struggle to give a concrete answer.

            Another such term is terrorism. The Islamic Republic of Iran has often been accused of terrorism by opponents of the regime, particularly for the targeted killing of Iranian expatriates around the world.[1] [2] While these killings are terrible, is it fair to call them terrorism? Terrorism is a tricky term. It is employed frequently. At one extreme, it seems that people label any harm done to their own interests as terrorism and any who oppose their side as terrorists.[3] At another extreme, the Reuters news agency's objective language policy prevents them from labeling any as terrorists, claiming, "We all know that one man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter, and that Reuters upholds the principle that we do not use the word terrorist."[4] With such an emotionally-charged word as terrorism, can there be an objective definition?

            David J. Samuels attempts to do so, defining terrorism as "threatened or actual use of violence for political purposes by non-state actors, directed particularly against civilian targets."[5] While this definition covers a lot of what we call terrorism, it may be overly inclusive. For example, under Samuels' definition, such tactics as cooping—which we would not normally refer to as terrorism—would fit under that umbrella. That inclusion may or may not be problematic—colloquial exclusion of cooping from the category of terrorism may be mistaken. In another sense, however, Samuels' definition may too exclusive—the aforementioned example of Iran's targeted killing of expatriates could never be considered terrorism, simply because it is allegedly state-sponsored.

            Jessica Stern addresses some of the problems with defining terrorism: "Some definitions focus on the perpetrator, others on his or her purpose, and still others on the terrorist's technique. But only two characteristics of terrorism are critical for distinguishing it from other forms of violence. First, terrorism is aimed at noncombatants. This characteristic of terrorism distinguishes it from some war-fighting. Second, terrorists use violence for dramatic purpose: instilling fear in the target audience is often more important in the physical result. This deliberate creation of dread is what distinguishes terrorism from simple murder or assault." She goes on to say that terrorism can be defined "as an act or threat of violence against noncombatants with the objective of exacting revenge, intimidating, or otherwise influencing an audience. This definition avoids limiting perpetrator or purpose. It allows for a range of possible actors (states or their surrogates, international groups, or a single individual) and all putative goals (political, religious, or economic)."[6] By her definition, for example, cooping would again be considered terrorism. But what about Iran?

            At times, Iran's targeting of expatriates has not been very dramatic at all. The attempted kidnapping of Abdolhassan Mojtahedzadeh by Iranian diplomats,[7] for example, seems to have been carried out more to eliminate an enemy of the regime than to instill fear in a certain audience. In other cases, however, there seems to have been a more obvious intention to intimidate certain groups by the violence perpetrated. Any attempt to classify Iran's lethal activities abroad as terrorism or otherwise is bound to be inaccurate in some form or another. If one's interest is in determining what is terrorism and what is not, it would be best to examine Iranian-sponsored killings on a case-by-case basis.

            On September 17, 1992, armed gunmen, sent by Iranian Minister of Intelligence Ali Fallahian who had received approval from Supreme Leader Ayatollah Khameini, burst into the Mykonos restaurant in Berlin where members of the Democratic Party of Iranian Kurdistan were meeting. They killed Sadegh Sharafkandi, Homayoun Ardalan, Fatah Abdoli, and Nouri Dekhordi.[8] Were the Mykonos assassinations an act of terrorism? Because they were directed by the state of Iran, by Samuels' definition it was not terrorism. However, if Stern's definition is applied, the attack, an act of violence against noncombatants, intended to intimidate Kurdish activists (and they were intimidated), was an act of terrorism.

            Due to Samuels' exclusion of state actors from being perpetrators of terrorism, his definition of terrorism is flawed and overly exclusive. It seems that such an act as the Mykonos assassinations which is so obviously designed to cause terror should not be excluded from the category of terrorism, merely because the perpetrators were state-sponsored. Stern's definition seems much more fitting and applicable. Again: terrorism is "an act or threat of violence against noncombatants with the objective of exacting revenge, intimidating, or otherwise influencing an audience."

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[1] See, for example: PDK-Iran. “Victims of Iranian State Terrorism. http://www.pdk-iran.org/english/doc/terorismus.htm (accessed September 13, 2012).

[2] See also: Pahlavi, Ashraf. "Report on the Islamic Republic's Terrorism abroad." Official site of H.I.H. Princess Ashraf Pahlavi of Iran. http://saipa.us/terrorism.html (accessed March 9, 2012).

[3] For a discussion of this phenomenon, see: Solomon, Norman. "Blurring Terrorism and Insurgency in Iraq." Antiwar, December 13, 2005, http://www.antiwar.com/solomon/?articleid=8251 (accessed November 8, 2012).

[4] "Reuters." Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reuters (accessed November 8, 2012).

[5] Samuels, David J. Comparative Politics. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc., 2013, page 276.

[6] Stern, Jessica. Terror in the Name of God: Why Religious Militants Kill. New York: Ecco, 2003, page xx.

[7] See Curtiss, Richard. "Iran: Toll of Iran-Linked Assassinations Rising in Europe and Middle East." The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs 11.8 (1993), http://search.proquest.com/docview/218818862 (accessed February 22, 2012).

[8] For information on the Mykonos assassinations, see:

Hakakian, Roya. Assassins of the Turquoise Palace. New York: Grove Press, 2011.

Staunton, Denis. "Ex President of Iran Says Khameini Gave Order for Killings." Irish Times, August 23, 1996,

http://global.factiva.com/aa/?ref=irti000020011018ds8n00b6&xpp=1&fcpil=en&napc=S&sa_from= (accessed April 18, 2012).

Kinzer, Stephen. "Iran Kurdish Leader Among 4 Killed in Berlin." New York Times, September 18, 1992, International section, page 4, http://search.proquest.com/docview/108831878 (accessed March 28, 2012).